Glossary of Medical Terms

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z

A.

    Allele:

    Genes that have corresponding positions on paired chromosomes.  These genes have inheritable traits and may be identical (homozygous) or different (heterozygous).  One gene, for example, may influence the selection of blue eye color, while the other brown.

    Androgen:

    A male sex hormone (the counterpart to estrogen). Testosterone is an androgen.

    Angiogenesis:

    The process with which tumors induce existing blood vessels to sprout new capillaries, thereby obtaining the blood they need to grow and thrive. By inhibiting vessel growth, cancer therapies that block angiogenesis deny tumors their vital nourishment, literally killing malignancies from the inside out.

    Anthrax:

    A highly infectious -- often fatal -- disease of humans and domestic animals.

    Antiestrogen:

    A substance that inhibits the activity of estrogen.

    Antigen:

    A substance that prompts the immune system to make a specific response.

    Antitoxin:

    An antiserum that contains an antibody that counteracts a specific toxin.

    Apoptosis:

    The normal process of cell self-destruction that eliminates superfluous or damaged cells.

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B.

    B Cells:

    A white blood cell that makes antibodies and is an important part of the immune system. B cells come from bone marrow. Also called B lymphocyte.

    Bind

    In biology, the combining of two molecules (or chemicals).  Protein molecules bind with receptors on the surfaces or interiors of cells to motivate the cells to perform specific functions.

    Biomarker:

    A substance that serves as an indicator of a biological process, occurrence, or condition. For example, biomarkers associated with particular types of cancer can provide early signs of the diseases and enable timely prognoses.

    Bioinformatics

    See biomedical informatics.

    Biomedical Informatics

    The scientific field that focuses on the storage, retrieval, processing and use of biomedical information, data and knowledge. It is often associated with the use of computers in the study of molecular genetics and genomics.

    Biostatistics

    The use of statistical processes to analyze biological data and phenomena.

    BRCA1/BRCA2:

    Tumor suppressor genes associated with breast cancer. Mutations of these genes are thought to be associated with approximately half of inherited cases of breast cancer.

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C.

    CALGB:

    The Cancer and Leukemia Group is headquarted at the University of Chicago and chaired by Richard Schilsky. Formed in 1956, the cooperative group involves 29 university medical centers, more than 225 community hospitals and over 3,000 oncology specialists.

    Carcinogenesis:

    The process in which healthy cells become cancerous.

    Chemoprevention:

    Substances, such as medicine and food supplements, that are administered to individuals with a high risk of acquiring cancer. Tamoxifen, for example, is administered to patients who have had breast cancer in the hopes of preventing reoccurrences.

    Chromosomes:

    Located in the nuclei of cells, these bundles of genes and other DNA material contain the genetic information that determines an organism's traits and characteristics. Humans have 23 pairs of organism. Mothers contribute one-half of each pair to their children; fathers provide the other half.

    Chronic Myeloid Leukemia:

    A form of leukemia that is characterized by the production of too many white cells in bone marrow. Also known as chronic myelogenous leukemia or granulocytic leukemia.

    Computed Tomography:

    A computerized X-ray machine that scans bodily structures from a variety of angles to create a 3-dimensional image. CT is also known as computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan.

    Cooperative Groups:

    An association of researchers and institutions working together to conduct clinical cancer research. There are ten cooperative groups in the United States. The Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) is headquarted at the University of Chicago and chaired by Richard Schilsky, MD.

    Core Research Facilities:

    Also known as shared research facilities, these centralized resources of technology and expertise provide researchers with a wide variety of services and equipment.  These integrated operations enable the University to offer resources to all its scientests that might otherwise be too costly to provide for individual researchers.

    Cytology:

    The study of cells, which examines their growth, structure, reproduction, pathology and diversity.

    Cytogenetics:

    The use of cytology (the study of cells) and genetics to examine heredity and genetic variation. Its focus is on chromosomes and chromosomal abnormalities.

    Cytosol:

    The liquid and semi-fluid matrix that surrounds the cells nucleus

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D.

    Differentiate:

    When cells undergo differentiation or maturation, they modify themselves in order to perform specific functions (e.g. immature erythroblasts become mature erythrocytes or red blood cells that carry oxygen to tissues).

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E.

    Edema:

    Dropsy: excess fluid in body tissues.

    Effector Cells:

    Lymphocytes within the immune system that differentiate (change) in response to a stimulus in order to perform a specific function.

    Epidemiology

    The study of the incidence, control, and distribution of a disease or other states and activities influencing the health of populations.  Epidemiologists look at a variety of health factors, such as infectious diseases, suicides, accidents, and environmental factors.

    EPR:

    Electron-paramagnetic-resonance (EPR) or electron-spin-resonance (ESR) spectroscopy measures the absorption of microwave radiation by an unpaired electron when it is placed in a strong magnetic field. It is used to investigate the nature of chemicals within molecules.

    Etiology:

    The cause[s] of a disease or an abnormal condition.

    Eukaryotic Cells:

    Cells with distinct nuclei and organelles. (Prokaryotic cells and organisms, such as bacterium, do not have evident nuclei.)

    Expression:

    The processes involved in converting genetic information from a DNA sequence to a protein or an amino acid.

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F.

    Fas:

    A protein on the surface of a cell, which is one of the main triggers of programmed cell death. It is a member of the tumor necrosis (TNF) factor family of receptors.

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G.

    Genes:

    A section of DNA that expresses one or more traits and transmits them from parent to child. Genes contain the information required to create specific proteins.

    Genome

    A complete set of chromosomes in a cell.  Each genome provides a comprehensive collection of the cell’s genetic information.

    Genomics

    Genomics applies genetic mapping and DNA sequencing to study sets of genes or the entire genome as dynamic systems.  This investigation provides vital insights into how genes function and how they affect biological processes.

    Glioma:

    A tumor in the brain the source of which is the glial cells. These non-conducting nerve cells provide support and protection for neurons, which are the cells that receive and transmit nerve impulses.

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H.

    Hematology:

    The study of blood and blood-forming organs

    Hematopoiesis:

    The process of blood and blood cell formation in a living organism.

    Hematopoietic Stem Cells:

    Unspecialized cells that ultimately diffentiate into mature blood cells.

    Hematological Malignancy:

    A cancer of the blood or bone marrow. Leukemias and lymphomas are hematological malignancies.

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I.

    Immunotherapy:

    Treatment that leverages the body's immune system in the fight against disease.

    Immunotherapeutic:

    Having the capacity to use the body's immune system for treatment.

    In Vitro:

    Taking place outside of a living organism. In research, the study of a process outside the organism in experimental conditions (see In Vivo).

    In Vivo:

    Taking place within a living organism. In research, the study of a biological process in real life, as opposed to "in vitro" which refers to the study of a process outside the organism in experimental conditions (see In Vitro).

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J.

    JNK:

    A member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) superfamily, which helps triggerinflammatory responses, stress responses, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis.

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K.

    Knockout Mouse:

    A gene mutation is artificially introduced into every cell of the mouse for research purposes. In a knockout mouse, both alleles of a particular gene are inactivated, also know as a "null" allele. These models are used to study the relationship of malfunctioning genes and human diseases.

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L.

    Leukemia:

    An acute or chronic disease that starts in the blood forming organisms, such as bone marrow. We associate leukemias with an abnormal increase in blood cells in the tissues of the body. Hence, we classify leukemias in terms of the type of blood cells most prominently involved.

    Lymph:

    The clear fluid in the lymphatic system that carries white blood cells to fight infection.

    Lymphatic (Lymphoid) System:

    The network of organs and vessels that contain lymph. The purpose of the system is to produce and transport white blood cells to fight infection.

    Lymphoma:

    A cancer of the lymphoid system. The presence of Reed-Sternberg cells is the marker (determining characteristic) of Hodgkin's lymphoma. Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas encompass a large, diverse group of additional cancers affecting the immune system.

    Lymphocytes:

    White blood cells that are key components of the immune system, because they produce antibodies and other substances that fight infection, cancer and other diseases.

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M.

    Magnetic Resonance Imaging:

    MRI use radio waves and a powerful magnet to develop computerized images of internal bodily tissues. It is an effective way to identify diseased tissue.

    Malignancy:

    A cancerous tumor capable of metastasis (movement of cancerous cells to other parts of the body and spreading the disease.

    Malignant:

    Cancerous; malignant cells are capable of metastasis.

    Metastasis:

    Movement of disease producing agent (e.g. bacteria or cancer cells) from one part of the body to another. This is usually accomplished by spreading though the blood or lymphatic systems.

    Medical Oncology:

    The study of ways to treat cancers using treatments exclusive of surgery.

    MHC:

    The major histocompatibility complex is a group of genes involved in immunological recognition.

    Mitogen:

    Substances that trigger mitosis.

    Modality:

    A type of treatment, such as radiation, surgery and chemotherapy. Multi-modality refers to a treatment regimen that uses a combination of therapies.

    Molecular Targets:

    Key molecules that are involved in cancer cell growth and are targets for anti-cancer therapies.

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N.

    Neoantigen:

    An antigen that does not appear in a cell until it has been transformed by an oncogenic virus.

    Nodule:

    A small mass or growth; nodules may be benign or malignant.

    Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma:

    A group of cancers of the lymphoid system. The source of these malignant lymphomas is usually within B or T lymphoid cells.

    Nuclear Receptors:

    These DNA-binding proteins are critical to embryonic development and cell death. Damage to these receptors can result in proliferative, reproductive, and metabolic diseases such as cancer and diabetes.

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O.

    Oncogene:

    A gene that has the potential to promote or permit cancer.

    Oncology:

    The study of cancer.

    Organelle:

    A specialized part of a cell, which is suspended in the cytosol (the liquid and semi-fluid matrix that surrounds the cell's nucleus). Examples of organelles are lysosomes, mitochondria, nuclei, and ribosomes

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P.

    Pathogenesis:

    The beginning and development of a disease.

    Pathology:

    The study of disease.

    Pathway:

    In cancer studies, the pathway is the communication link which signals a cell to begin or stop a particular function. Abnormalities that disrupt the pathways that signal the cell to stop multiplying are the fundamental cause of cancers. A cancerous tumor is simply the accumulation of cells produced by this non-stop replication.

    PET Imaging:

    Positron-emission tomography uses a radioactive substance injected into a vein to create computerized images of internal bodily structures. It is particularly useful in finding cancer cells within the body.

    Pharmacogenetics (or Pharmacogenomics):

    The field that combines the disciplines of medicine, genetics and pharmacology to study how a person's genetic makeup affects his or her body's response to drugs.

    Pharmacology:

    The science of drugs.

    Phase One Clinical Studies:

    Phase I studies involve the fewest number of patients. Their purpose is to determine how to administer new drugs and what are the safest, most effective doses.

    Phase Two Clinical Studies:

    Phase II trials continue to focus on safety and begin the analysis of the effectiveness of innovative therapies.

    Phase Three Clinical Studies:

    Phase III trials usually enroll numerous patients and involve numerous institutions under the direction of a lead research center. These trials compare experimental drugs, combinations of drugs or surgical procedures with existing therapies to determine if innovations are superior to the current standards.

    Population Sciences

    In cancer research, an interdisciplinary area of study that employs investigations in medicine, biostatistics, epidemiology, behavioral sciences, genetics, health education, psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, health services, surveillance, and cancer survivorship to reduce the burden of cancer.

    Precursor cells:

    Cells that precede and evolve into more differentiated cells.

    Prokaryotic Cells:

    Cells and organisms, such as bacterium, that do not have evident nuclei. (Eukaryotic cells and organisms have distinct nuclei and organelles.)

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Q.

R.

    Radiology:

    The science of radiation and the employment of radioactivity (e.g. X-ray) and other radiant energy (e.g. ultrasound) to treat or diagnose disease.

    Radionuclide Imaging:

    A form of imaging that uses a small amount of radioactive material that is swallowed by the patient. This enables a radiologist to use a scanner to measure the amount of radioactivity in internal organs and develop images of them.

    Ras:

    The Ras family of genes is associated with many types of cancer, such malignancies of the lung, pancreas, and colon.

    Receptor:

    A protein or complex inside or on the surface of a cell that recognizes and binds to a specific substance acting as a molecular messenger causing particular physiologic effect in the cell.

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S.

    Shared Research Facilities

    See core research facilities

    Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography:

    SPECT uses a radioactive drug injected into a vein to create images. It is especially useful in analyzing blood flow and metabolism.

    Signaling:

    Molecules trigger cells to change or take action. Cancer is caused by the malfunctioning signaling molecules which regulate growth.

    Signal Transduction:

    The process in which a cell responds to an external signal that engenders change within the cell.

    Signal Transduction Inhibitor:

    A drug that inhibits the external signal that prompts changes within the cell.

    Spectroscopy:

    The study of the interactions between matter radiations including light.

    Stem Cell:

    An relatively unspecialized cell (e.g. fibroblasts and hemopoetic stem cells) from which other kinds of cells are created.

    Suppressor gene:

    A gene that prevents the expression of another gene. Some suppressor genes prevent other genes from becoming cancerous.

    Survivorship:

    Refers to both length of survival following a cancer diagnosis and issues regarding long-term quality of life.

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T.

    T Cells:

    White blood cell that regulate the immune response and attack antigens and other foreign cells.

    TNF:

    See Tumor Necrosis Factor

    Tomography:

    The creation of a three-dimensional images of the inside of the body using an x-ray machine linked to a computer.

    Tomosynthesis:

    a limited form of Computed Tomography or CT that produces three-dimensional images by integrating series of images taken from multiples angles.

    Transcription:

    The process of constructing a molecule using a DNA strand as a template to transfer genetic information to the molecule. Transcription creates all three RNA classes (messenger, ribosomal and transfer).

    Transgenic Mouse:

    Foreign DNA is introduced into mouse cells to induce the expression of normal or mutated genes for research purposes.

    Translational Research:

    Investigation that promotes and enables the successful and safe transition of laboratory discoveries to the clinic. Often referred to as "bench to bedside," this process facilitates the deliver of the benefits of advanced research to patients.

    Tumorigenesis:

    Tumor creation

    Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF):

    The body naturally produces this cancer killing protein, but it is often lethal when introduced as a therapeutic agent.

    Tumor Suppressor Gene:

    Genes that inhibit uncontrolled cell division and prevent cancer.

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U.

V.

    Vaccine:

    A therapy designed to encourage the immune system to respond to tumors or harmful bacteria and viruses.

    Viruses:

    Minute, simple organisms that cause many infectious diseases. Many suspect that they may be the causes of some forms of cancer.

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W.

X.

    X-Ray crystallography:

    This imaging technique allows researchers to map the precise locations of the atoms in a molecule. Understanding the structure of a molecule enables scientists to study how it works. This knowledge is invaluable in the development of more effective threapies.

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Y.

Z.